RESUMEN
Previous research has demonstrated human exposure to mycotoxins among Guatemalans, with high levels of mycotoxins being found in blood and urine samples as well as in maize for human consumption. Mishandling of crops such as maize during pre- and post-harvest has been associated with mycotoxin contamination. The overarching goal of this study was to identify risk factors for aflatoxin and fumonisin exposure in Guatemala. A cross-sectional survey of 141 women tortilla makers was conducted in the departments of Guatemala, Sololá, Suchitepéquez, Izabal, and Zacapa in February 2022. Maize and tortilla samples were collected and analyzed for aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and fumonisin B1, B2, and B3 contamination (FB1, FB2, FB3). Urine samples were collected and analyzed for urinary FB1 (uFB1) contamination. A questionnaire was administered to collect data on sociodemographic characteristics, dietary intake of maize-based foods the week prior to the study, and maize handling practices. Descriptive statistics were used to describe common maize handling practices. A univariable analysis was conducted to identify predictors of low/high AFB1, total fumonisins, and uFB1. Multivariable logistic regression was used to calculate adjusted odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs). During tortilla processing, a reduction in the AFB1 and total fumonisin levels was observed. The presence of AFB1 in maize was associated with department and mean total fumonisin level in maize (OR: 1.705, 95% CI: 1.113-2.613). The department where the tortilleria was located was significantly associated with the presence of fumonisins in tortillas. Increased consumption of Tortrix was significantly associated with the presence of FB1 in urine (OR: 1.652, 95% CI: 1.072-2.546). Results of this study can be used in the development and implementation of supply chain management practices that mitigate mycotoxin production, reduce food waste and economic loss, and promote food security.
RESUMEN
Fumonisin exposure is common in populations where maize is a dietary staple, such as in Guatemala, and has been associated with negative health outcomes including neural tube defects. The objective of this study was to estimate fumonisin B1 (FB1) exposure among Guatemalan reproductive-age women and develop a better understanding of the dietary and sociodemographic risk factors for exposure. A cross-sectional study in 18 municipalities in Guatemala was conducted. Midwives and study nurses enrolled consenting women and collected individual and household demographic and socioeconomic data. A food frequency questionnaire was administered to estimate quantity and types of food products consumed. A urine sample was collected and urinary fumonisin B1 (uFB1) concentration was measured. A univariable analysis was conducted to identify predictors of low/high uFB1. Multivariable logistic regression was used to calculate adjusted odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs). In total, 775 women had analyzable urine samples. Higher uFB1 levels were associated with speaking Mayan (OR = 2.33, 95% CI:1.44-3.77), less than high school education (OR = 1.61, 95% CI:1.12-2.30), increasing dietary proportion of maize-based foods (OR = 1.02, 95% CI:1.01-1.03), and consumption of tostadas (fried tortillas) (OR = 1.11, 95% CI:1.02-1.22). Lower uFB1 levels were associated with consumption of highly processed maize-based foods (OR = 0.93, 95% CI:0.87-0.99). Tortillas were the most frequently consumed maize-based food among study participants and significantly associated with high uFB1 exposure in the univariable but not multivariable analysis. Consumption of >4,750 grams/week of maize-based foods, >5,184 g/week of locally produced maize-based foods, and >110 servings/week of tortillas were also significantly associated with high uFB1 exposure in univariable analysis. Populations with low socioeconomic status/education levels and high consumption of maize-based foods had higher fumonisin exposure. Interventions aimed at reducing the risk of exposure to mycotoxins through maize in Guatemala, including the increased consumption of non-maize-based foods, should be further explored.
RESUMEN
ABSTRACT: Refugee camps provide basic necessities such as food, water, shelter, and medical treatment for displaced persons. Unsanitary conditions in refugee camps due to overcrowding, poor sanitation systems, lack of clean water, and minimal ways to cook and store food can lead to an increased risk of foodborne illness. This article reviews the limited literature on the epidemiology of foodborne illness in refugee camps, effective risk mitigation strategies, and opportunities for future research. Eleven relevant articles were identified, suggesting that research in this area is limited. Identified research focused on three pathogens-Vibrio cholerae, Salmonella, and hepatitis E virus-that can cause serious diseases such as cholera, salmonellosis, typhoid fever, and hepatitis E. Storage and handling of clean water for personal hygiene and food preparation were critical components for ensuring food safety. Knowledge pertaining to best practices for hygiene and food preparation also were identified as important. Gaps in current research include determination of the prevalence of pathogens in food sold in refugee camps and development of culturally relevant food safety supply chain quality management systems. More research that focuses on burden and attribution of foodborne illness and food safety interventions in refugee camps is necessary.
